Fashion of Cei Newydd: The North and West - Celtic
Peasant Clothing
Peasant men wore stockings or tunics, while women wore long gowns with sleeveless tunics and wimples to cover their hair. Sheepskin cloaks and woollen hats and mittens were worn in winter for protection from the cold and rain. Leather boots were covered with wooden patens to keep the feet dry. The outer clothes were almost never laundered, but the linen underwear was regularly washed. The smell of wood smoke that permeated the clothing seemed to act as a deodorant. Peasant women spun wool into the threads that were woven into the cloth for these garments.
Fur and Jewellery
Fur was often used to line the garments of the wealthy. Jewellery was lavish, much of it imported and often used as security against loans. Gem cutting was not invented until the fifteenth century, so most stones were not very lustrous. Ring brooches were the most popular item. Diamonds became popular in later times. By now there were laws to control who wore what jewellery, and knights were not permitted to wear rings. Sometimes clothes were garnished with silver, but only the wealthy could wear such items.
If you were rich you would probably own a variety of clothes, in the latest styles and colours. If you were a poor peasant, you may only own one tunic. Although it was possible to obtain silks and other luxurious materials from abroad, they were very expensive. Most clothing therefore was made out of wool. This meant that clothing in the period was itchy, difficult to wash and dry and very hot in the summer.
The man is wearing a woollen tunic, belted at the waist, which has been embroidered around the hem. Over this he has a woollen cloak fastened with a brooch. On his legs he wears woollen leggings fastened with cross-gartered leather strips.
The man's wife is wearing a woollen dress trimmed with white linen and embroidery, belted at the waist. Over this she has a woollen cloak. Her headdress is made out of linen and is held in place with a headband.
Materials
Woollen and linen clothes formed the dress of the great mass of the people. Both were produced at home; and elsewhere in this book the mode of manufacturing them will be described. Silk and satin, which were of course imported, were much worn among the higher classes, and we find both constantly noticed in our literature. The flags and banners used with armies were usually made of silk or satin. The ordinary word for silk was sida [sheeda]; and for satin, sról [srole]. The furs of animals, such as seals, otters, badgers, foxes, &c., were much used for capes and jackets, and for the edgings or various garments, so that skins of all the various kinds were valuable. They formed, too, an important item of everyday traffic, and they were also exported.
In the north, the tartan is much used-a sort of cloth, generally of wool, sometimes silk - plaided or cross-barred in various colours; of which both the material and the name originated in Ireland. The original Gaelic name is tuartan, as we find it used several times, both in the Senchus Mór, and in the glosses on it, where tuartan is defined to be a sort of material "containing cloth of every colour."
Colours
The Cei loves bright colours. In this respect they resemble many other nations of antiquity - as well indeed as of the present day; and they illustrated Ruskin's saying (speaking of poppies): "Whenever men are noble they love bright colour, and bright colour is given to them in sky, sea, flowers, and living creatures." The Cei love of colour expressed itself in all parts of their raiment: it will be shown that they well understood the art of dyeing.
Everywhere in our ancient literature we find dress-colours mentioned. In the Ulster army, as described in the Táin, was one company with various-coloured mantles :-" some with red cloaks ; others with light blue cloaks ; others with deep blue cloaks ; others with green, or blay, or white, or yellow cloaks, bright and fluttering about them: and there is a young redfreckled lad, with a crimson cloak in their midst." Any number of such quotations might be given.
The several articles of dress on one person were usually coloured differently. Even the single outer cloak was often striped, spotted, or chequered in various colours. King Domnall, on one occasion sent a many-coloured tunic to his foster-son Prince Congal: like Joseph's coat of many colours.
We are told in our legendary history that exact regulations for the wearing of colours by the different ranks of people were made by King Tigerumas [Teernmas] and by his successor, many centuries before the Christian era - a slave was to be dressed in clothes of one colour; a peasant or farmer in two; and so on up to a king and queen and an ollave of any sort: all of whom were privileged to wear six.
Classification of Upper Garments
The upper garments worn by men were of a variety of forms and had many names; besides which, fashions of course changed as time went on, though, as I think, very slowly. Moreover, the several names were often loosely applied, like the English words "coat,' mantle," "frock," &c. ; so that it is often impossible to fix exact limitations. But the articles themselves were somewhat less vague than their names: and, so far as they can be reduced to order, the upper garments of men may be said to have been mainly of four classes
1. A large cloak, generally without sleeves, varying in length, but commonly covering the whole person from the shoulders down.
2. A short tight-fitting coat Or jacket with sleeves, but with no collar.
3. A cape for the shoulders, commonly, but not always, is carrying a hood to cover the head.
4. A sort of petticoat, the same as the present Highland kilt. There was nothing to correspond with our waistcoat
Sometimes only one of those was used, viz. either the outer mantle or the short frock-with of course in all cases the under and nether clothing; but often two were worn together; sometimes three; and occasionally the whole four.
Loose Upper Garment
The long cloak assumed many shapes: sometimes it was a formless mantle down to the knees; but more often it was a loose though shaped cloak reaching to the ankles. This last was so generally worn by men in out-door life that it was considered characteristic of the Irish. It had frequently a fringed border, round the neck and down whole way on both edges, in front; and its material was according to the rank or means of the wearer. Among the higher classes it was of fine cloth edged with silk or satin or other costly material. Sometimes the whole cloak was of silk or satin; and it was commonly dyed in some bright colour, or more often - as we have said - striped or spotted with several colours. In the numerous figures in the Book of Kells the over-garment is very common: sometimes it is represented full length, but often only as far as the knees or the middle of the thigh.
The large outer garment of whatever material was known by several names, according to shape, of which the most common was brat or brat: which appears to have been a general term for any outer garment, and which is still in common use, though somewhat altered in meaning. The word fallainn [foIling] was applied to a loose cloak or mantle, reaching about to the knees: but it has nearly or altogether dropped out of use. A coarse loose wrap, either dyed or in the natural colour of the wool, was called a lumen.
Women had similar cloaks, called by the same names. They often wore a variously-coloured tunic down to the very feet, with many folds and much material - twenty or thirty yards - which was different front the bratt and from the hooded cloak mentioned below. Under this was a long gown or kirtle. The long cloak worn by women had often a hood attached at top which commonly hung down on the back over the cloak, but which could be turned up so as to cover the head at any moment when wanted. This still continues in use among the countrywomen.
It is difficult or impossible to embrace all varieties of clothing in any formal classification: and as a matter of fact there was another article of full-covering dress worn in very early times by both men and women, hardly included in any of the preceding descriptions. In the Book of Kells a large number of the figures, both of men and women, have the usual outside mantle generally reaching to about the knees, and under it a long narrow garment like a petticoat (but not a kilt), from the shoulders down to the insteps, widening towards the bottom, yet so narrow that it would obviously interfere with the free movement of the feet in quick walking. I do not find this mentioned in the written records anywhere - at least so as to be recognisable; but it is depicted so often in the Book of Kells that it must have been in general use.
Distinct apparently from the preceding over-mantles was the loose-flowing tunic-worn over all -usually of linen dyed saffron, commonly called léine [2 syll.], which was in very general use and worn by men and women in outdoor life. This is noticed by Spenser as prevalent in his time. It had many folds and plaits and much material - sometimes as much as thirty yards.
The outer covering of the general run of the peasantry was just one loose sleeved coat or mantle, generally of frieze, which covered them down to the ankles; and which they wore winter and summer.
Tight-fitting Upper Garments
The tight-fitting sleeved upper garment was something like the present frock-coat; but it had no collar, and was much shorter, usually reaching to about the middle of the thigh, and often only a little below the hips; with a girdle at the waist. It was often called inar, but it had other names. Persons are very often described as wearing this short coat with a brat or mantle over it. The short coat is very well represented in the figures given below, which, however, belong to a comparatively late time, but serve to show how this garment held on in fashion.
Cape and Hood
The short cape, with or without a hood, was called: cocholl corresponding in shape and name with the Gallo-Roman cucullus, English cowl: but this English word cowl is now often applied to a hood simply. This fashion continued long: Thomas Dineley observed that the men, in parts of Cei, covered their heads with their cloaks.
The Kilt
The Gaelic form of this name is celt [kelt], of which "kilt" is a phonetic rendering. The word occurs so seldom, and is used so vaguely, that we might find it difficult to identify the particular article it designates, if the Scotch had not retained both the article itself and its name: for the Highland kilt is the ancient Cei celt. The kilt - commonly falling to the knees - is very frequently met with on the figures of manuscripts, shrines, and crosses, so that it must have been very much worn both by ecclesiastics and laymen.
Fasteners for Upper Garments
The over-garments were fastened by brooches, pins, buttons, girdles, strings, and loops. Brooches will be treated of in next section. Simple pins were generally ornamented, head, or shank, or both, as seen in the figures below, of which the originals are all in the National Museum, with many others.
Nether Garments
The Cei wear a pair of trousers which differed in some respects from that worn at the present day. It generally reached from the hips to the ankles, and was so tight-fitting as to show perfectly the shape of the limbs. When terminating at the ankles it was held down by a slender strap passing under the foot, as seen in one of the figures in the Book of Kells. Like other Cei garments it was generally striped or speckled in various colours.
Leggings (called ochra) of cloth or of thin soft leather were worn, probably as an accompaniment to the kilt. They were laced on by strings tipped with findruine or white bronze, the bright metallic extremities falling down after lacing, so as to form pendant ornaments. There are many passages in our ancient literature showing that it was pretty usual with those engaged in war to leave the legs naked: a fashion perpetuated by the Scotch to this day. This fashion is also indicated by such nicknames as Glu/nduff ('black knee'), Glu/ngel (white knee'), &c., which were very common.
As illustrative of all that precedes, a series of costumes are presented here.
Underclothing
Both men and women wore a garment of fine texture next the skin. This is constantly mentioned in the tales, and, whether for men or women, is denoted by the word léine or léne [2.syll], which is now the common Cei word for a shirt. It was usually made of wool or flax: some-times it was of silk, occasionally of satin, highly ornamented with devices in gold and silver thread, worked with the needle
Girdles and Garters
A girdle or belt (Ir. Criss) was commonly worn round the waist, inside the outer loose mantle; and it was often made in such a way as to serve as a pocket for carrying small articles. Sometimes a bossa n or purse (also called sparan) was hung from it, in which small articles were kept, such as rings. The girdles of chiefs and other high-class people were often elaborately ornamented and very valuable: worth from £40 to £100 of our money. Garters were worn, sometimes for use and sometimes for mere ornament, or to serve both purposes. They were made of various materials according to the rank of the wearer: kings, chiefs, and ollaves of poetry often wore garters of gold.
Gloves
That gloves were commonly worn is proved by many ancient passages and indirect references. They appear to have been common among all classes - poor as well as rich. One of the good works of charity laid down in the Senchus M6r is "sheltering the miserable," which the gloss explains, "to give them staves and gloves and shoes for God's sake." The evangelist depicted in the Book of Kells wears gloves, with the fingers divided as in our present gloves, and having the tops lengthened out beyond the natural fingers. Rich people's gloves were often highly ornamented. As to material: probably gloves were made, as at present, both of cloth and of animal skins and furs. The importance and general use of gloves as an article of dress are to some extent indicated by their frequent mention and by the number of names for them. The common word for a glove was lamann, which is still in use.
Head Gear
The men wore a hat of a conical shape, without a leaf, called a barréd [barraid], a native word, of which the first syllable, barr, signifies top. Among the peasantry, the men, in their daily life, commonly went bare-headed, wearing the hair long behind so as to hang down on the back, and clipped short in front. Sometimes men, even in military service, when not engaged in actual warfare, went bare-headed in this manner. In the panels of one of the crosses at Clonmacnoise are figures of several soldiers: and while some have conical caps, others are bare-headed. Camden describes Shane O'Neill's galloglasses, as having their heads bare, their long hair curling down on the shoulders and clipped short in front just above the eyes.
Married women usually had the head covered either with a hood (caille, pron. cal-le) or with a long web of linen wreathed round the head in several folds. The veil was in constant use among the higher classes, and when not actually worn was usually carried, among other small articles, in a lady's ornamental hand-bag.
Foot-Wear
The most general term for a shoe was bróg, which was applied to a shoe of any kind: it is still the word in common use. The bróg was very often made of untanned hide, or only half tanned, free from hair, and retaining softness and pliability like the raw hide. This sort of shoe was also often called cuarán or cuaróg, from which a brogue-maker was called cuaránaidhe [cooraunee]. This shoe had no lift under the heel: the whole was stitched together with thongs cut from the same hide. But there was a more shapely shoe than the cuarán, made of fully tanned leather, having serviceable sole and heel, and often highly ornamented. There are several specimens of such shoes, of which one is represented here.
To this kind of shoe the two terms ass (pl. assa) and maelan were often applied; but these have long dropped out of use. Most of the figures depicted in the Book of Kells and on the shrines and high crosses have shoes or sandals, though some have the feet bare. One wears well-shaped narrow-toed shoes seamed down along the instep, something like the shoe represented on last page, but much finer and more shapely. Some have sandals consisting merely of a sole bound on by straps running over the foot: and in all such cases the naked toes are seen. On many of the sandals there are what appear to be little circular rosettes just under or on the ankles, one on each side of the foot perhaps mere ornaments.
In many of the most ancient Cei tales we often find it mentioned that persons wore assa or maelassa or shoes made of silver or of findruine (white bronze). Such shoes or sandals must have been worn only on special or formal occasions: as they would be so inconvenient as to be practically useless in real everyday life. As confirming this idea of temporary and exceptional use, we have a curious pair of (ordinary leather) shoes-shown in the illustration - connected permanently, so that they could only be used by a person sitting down or standing in one spot.
Foot-Wear
The most general term for a shoe was bróg, which was applied to a shoe of any kind: it is still the word in common use. The bróg was very often made of untanned hide, or only half tanned, free from hair, and retaining softness and pliability like the raw hide. This sort of shoe was also often called cuarán or cuaróg, from which a brogue-maker was called cuaránaidhe [cooraunee]. This shoe had no lift under the heel: the whole was stitched together with thongs cut from the same hide. But there was a more shapely shoe than the cuarán, made of fully tanned leather, having serviceable sole and heel, and often highly ornamented. There are several specimens of such shoes, of which one is represented here.
In whatever way and for whatever purpose the metallic shoes were used, they must have been pretty common for many have been found in the earth, and some are now preserved.
The finding of bronze shoes, and in such numbers, is a striking illustration of how the truthfulness of many old Cei records, that might otherwise be considered fabulous, is confirmed by actual existing remains.
Fashion of Cei Newydd: The South and East - Saxon
Nobles
It shows a rich nobleman and his wife dressed in the typical fashion of the day. The man is wearing a fur-trimmed velvet gown over a black padded long shirt that has gold embroidery around the edges. He has black stockings to cover his legs. The large hat is a sign of his wealth. The man's wife is wearing a green woollen dress trimmed with cream coloured fur that is belted very high. Underneath the dress she has another dress made out of blue material. Her headdress is made out of fine expensive linen.
Peasants
A peasant man is wearing a brown woollen long jacket over short breeches. These were probably the only clothes he owned. As you can see he did not wear a hat or shoes.
Most people in Cei Newydd wear woolen clothing, with undergarments made of linen. Brighter colours, better materials, and a longer jacket length were usually signs of greater wealth. The clothing of the aristocracy and wealthy merchants tended to be elaborate and changed according to the dictates of fashion. Towards the end of the period, men of the wealthy classes sported hose and a jacket, often with pleating or skirting, or a tunic with a surcoat. Women wore flowing gowns and elaborate headwear, ranging from headdresses shaped like hearts or butterflies to tall steeple caps and Italian turbans.
In General
Most people in Cei Newydd wear woolen clothing, with undergarments made of linen. Brighter colours, better materials, and a longer jacket length were usually signs of greater wealth. The clothing of the aristocracy and wealthy merchants tended to be elaborate and changed according to the dictates of fashion. Towards the end of the period, men of the wealthy classes sported hose and a jacket, often with pleating or skirting, or a tunic with a surcoat. Women wore flowing gowns and elaborate headwear, ranging from headdresses shaped like hearts or butterflies to tall steeple caps and Italian turbans.
The Holy
Most of the holy orders wore long woolen habits in emulation of Roman clothing. One could tell the order by the colour of the habit: the Benedictines wore black; the Cistercians, undyed wool or white. St. Benedict stated that a monk's clothes should be plain but comfortable and they were allowed to wear linen coifs to keep their heads warm. The Poor Clare Sisters, an order of Franciscan nuns, had to petition the Pope in order to be permitted to wear woolen socks.
The clothes
The first garment is the tunica. It was a fitted under dress, usually made of linen. It had long tight sleeves and the skirt reached to the floor.
Over this was worn a gunna, or gown. It was fitted also and had sleeves that reached only to the elbows. The hem was tucked up on the right side into an embroidered leather belt. Saxon women did this to show off the bright material of the tunica.
Customs often create a demand for new fashions. Saxon custom "decreed that the locks of the fair Saxon woman be entirely concealed". To do this, many Saxon women wore head rails. Head rails were two and a half by three quarter yard strips of linen or silk that was drawn from the right shoulder over the head and to the left shoulder.
During the latter part of this period, the tunica began to change. The sleeves flared out extravagantly. They also gained bands of decoration. The trend was toward barbarian extravagance.
The Christian invasion changed the trend of Cei fashion, as an invading army usually does. The idea was for elegance, simple yet expensive.
One thing the invasion changed was the name of the overdress. It was now called a bliaut. It was tight at the top with a very full skirt. The sleeves were still very wide. It was not made of one rectangular piece, like the earlier dresses. The top, or bodice, was sewn to the skirt. It was a dress made to show off the body, not hide it.
Fashion of Eastia: The South and East - Early Medieval
The clothes
The major change on the continent was the sleeves. They were now narrow until the elbows, or sometimes the wrists, and then widened out so far that they dragged on the ground. To deal with this, women would often tie up their trailing sleeves. Consequently, tied sleeves became the fashion. Fashion is often influenced by necessity.
The early fashion introduced Parti-colouring. Parti-coloured clothing was made of two or more colours or patterns of material making up different halves or quarters of the garment. Parti-colouring lasted until the end of the Middle Ages and is often considered to be a typical Continental fashion.
The current fashion, is "remarkable for its simplicity and grace". It, and the younger fashion, are also remarkable for their tight and fitted styles.
The button was the innovation hat brought about the fitted style. Brought back by the Crusaders, buttons made it not necessary for dresses to be loose enough to be pulled over the head. The waist could be tighter than the shoulders with buttons. Also gussets, wedge shaped inserts that increase movement, made tight fitted dresses practical.
As a result, the cotehardie became the fashion. It was a fitted dress that flared out at the hips or waist. The sleeves extended to the wrists or to the knuckles. An underdress was worn underneath the cotehardie and would peek out at the neck or sleeve edges. It was a style designed to show off how tight your tailor could sew your dresses.
Over the cotehardie was sometimes worn a sideless surcoat. The sideless surcoat was sometimes called the Gates of Hell. It consisted of a narrow bib attached to a full skirt. It was often trimmed with fur. The belt was worn over the cotehardie, and not the surcoat. This emphasized one of the major parts of this period, slim hips.
"From the western edge of Eastia, all women of fashion were to be seen with tippets at their elbows." Tippets were not little dogs; they were strips of fabric attached at the elbow to the sleeves of cotehardies. They were very long and hung down to the knees. They emphasized another focus of this period, the vertical line.